INDUCTION handout

DEFINITION OF INDUCTION


According to Joyce, "Induction is the legitimate derivation of universal laws from individual cases" And, according to Fowler, "Induction is the legitimate inference of general from particular or of the more general from the less general",

From the above definitions it is clear that induction is a process of arriving at the general from the particulars. But the crucial question is what are the circumstances under which this transition can take place. In this connection, Mill had correctly warranted generalization where as in certain cases a single instance may suffice. Any one who knows more than this and knows when to generalize and when not to knows more than all ancient logicians and has solved the mystery of induction. However, the validity of induction is dependent upon two fundamental laws; the law of uniformity of Nature and the law of causation.

CHARACTRIST1CS OF SCIENTIFIC INDUCTION

Believing in the uniformity of Nature and the taw of causation a scientist generalizes.
Following are the characteristics of scientific Induction:

1.Establishment of Existential General propositions - This is the chief characteristics of induction. A proposition asserts something of something; it is particular when derived from experience. We can know only limited facts about an entire class and therefore, it asserts more than what is strictly experienced. But all induction is a leap from known to unknown on the basis of two above mentioned laws. Accordingly we establish proposition which we
claim to hold for all known and unknown instance. Therefore by induction we establish general propositions.

2. Based on Observed Facts - The second characteristic of induction is that it is basedon observed and experimental facts. For example, we know by observation and experiment that water boils at 100° centigrade at the sea level From this we induce a general proposition that "Water boils at 100 at the sea level". Now this fact is not se of evident but an observed 'act experimentally verified; and a general proposition derived on its basis is a verifiable proposition.

3.Inductive Leap-Mill calls induction a process of 'transition from known to the unknown And Bain has called it a leap. "Induction is a leap to the future which has not yet come within observation began, to the remote where there has been no access to observe". Very obviously induction is a movement from known to the unobserved, and without this jump no generalization is feasible. However, our jump is not irrational or arbitrary. It is based on laws
of uniformity of Nature and causality.


STAGES OF INDUCTIVE PROCESS

(a) Controlled observation under changing circumstances and analysis of facts and elimination of accidental- controlled observation is the first step in induction. By controlled observation i.e mean an organized experimental perception of certain facts, under changing circumstances, undertaken with a purpose in view. The facts discovered thus are next recorded systematically; memory is not to be relied upon.

The facts are now analyzed to find out which of them are essential to a phenomenon and which are accidental, I.e., without which a phenomenon would persist and not disappear. For example, the sweetness is essential for sugar; without sweetness there is no sugar. But without whiteness sugar does remain sugar but without sweetness it cannot be sugar. According to Mill those properties by removal of which a fact does not cease to be what it is are accidental. The purpose of analysis is to eliminate the accidental.

(b) Formation of a Hypothesis-

While observing the facts a scientist has some hypothesis in mind regarding causal relations between these facts. For example a scientist observing unhealthy environment knows that unhealthy environment is causative of certain diseases. But only if a scientist has some tentative idea about the disease produced by a certain type of environment, would his observation be of any value. For example, excessive smoke in the air cause tuberculosis; but if a scientist finds somebody suffering from cancer in a smoky environment and he jumps to the conclusion that smoke causes cancer, he simply was not observing; because without hypothesis there can be no fruitful observation

(c) Generalization-

The next step of induction is generalization. On the basis of particular observed fact; a principle is derived. For example in a wide range of observation, we may find that the majority of Juvenile delinquents hail from broken homes, we can formulate the principle that broken home encourage criminality.

(d) Verification-

This means to testify the validity of a hypothesis. According to Flower verification is a novel method of providing hypothesis or sometimes it is used to test a deductive argument by means of an inductive argument and vice versa. If a hypothesis is verified it becomes a scientific principle,

Logicians have distinguished two modes of verification: Direct an Indirect. In direct verification actual observation and experiment is made. Indirect verification is in two stages. Firstly, we make a deduction from general statement and secondly, we verify the conclusion. Verification is the most crucial stage of induction without passing which induction is of little worth.